Achievement Goal Theory

Achievement Goal Theory Achievement Goal Theory (Nicholls, 1984, 1989) proposes that goal orientations are developed and altered through various socialization processes, including the motivational climate created by parents and coaches (Nicholls, 1989). In order to better understand the influence of motivational climates, it is necessary to understand the concept of the achievement goal theory (Dweck Leggett, 1988). Achievement goals have been widely researched by Maehr (1980), Nicholls (1984) and Dweck (1986), who have worked individually, but also collaboratively, in an attempt to explain achievement behaviour within sport settings. As Duda (2001) and Nicholls (1984) demonstrated; whether a goal orientation is seen to have adaptive or maladaptive outcomes, will depend on the ability perceptions of the individual. Ames (1984, 1992) supported this idea, discovering that through a parents reaction to their childs performance, children will learn what is valued and preferred. Ultimately, this preference will then be reflected in a childs goal orientation and attitudes towards sport and exercise. In addition, when measuring this Ames (1992) commented that it is the childs interpretation of the parental influence rather than the actual behaviour that is deemed most important. Dweck (1986) proposed goal orientation as a defining feature of motivation. Task and ego orientated performers differ, as different behaviours will need to be adopted for each goal orientation and each environment within which the individual performs. Bartlett, Gratton and Rolf, (2006) agreed that a task orientated performer believes that participation in the activity leads to enhanced feelings of mastery, enjoyment, satisfaction and interest. In contrast, performers can be described as ego orientated. Smith, Balaguer and Duda, (2006) viewed this as the tendency to judge ones ability with respect to the performance of others and to tie subjective success to the demonstration of superior ability. Biddle et al. (2003, p. 11) hypothesized that, As a result of childhood socialization experiences, individuals goal orientations are expected to be consistent with the perceived goal orientations held by significant others, such as parents or coaches. Therefore, the following study will examine a childs perceptions of the motivational climate created by their parents and illustrate the relationship that this has with a childs attitudes towards sport and exercise participation. Perceived Motivational Climate Recently, research has addressed the contention that parents create a motivational climate that influences their childrens achievement motivation (Duda and Hall, 2000; Weigand, 1994; White, 1998). The motivational climate is created through a set of behaviours (e.g. rewards, punishment and feedback) from either parents or coaches (Ames, 1992). Similar to the structure of achievement goals, motivational climates can be either task or ego involving. Research suggests that promoting a task climate is related to greater satisfaction (Walling, Duda, Chi, 1993) and enjoyment (Seifriz, Duda, Chi, 1992); whereas promoting an ego climate is related to performance worry (Walling, Duda, Chi, 1993), and low self-efficacy (Nicholls,1989). In order to better understand an athletes socialisation experiences and the way in which these will influence their attitudes towards sport and exercise; it is appropriate to examine the motivational climate created by significant others (Elliot and Dweck, 2005). As well as coaches and peers, parents have an important role to play in understanding their childs motives for involvement in sport; and ensuring that they are supported, by creating the optimal motivational climate (Maffulli, 2001). Horn (2008) developed this idea further, commenting that, no role is more important than establishing the psychological climate in which the childs sports participation will take place. You have not included Epsteins TARGET research which underpins motivational climate research. By giving certain rewards, making explicit expectations and identifying the importance of a particular event or competition, significant others structure the sport context so that it becomes task or ego involving (Lee, 1993). This goal structure created by the adult establishes a motivational climate, whereby the development of one goal perspective takes priority over the other (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts, 1992). The motivational climate that is created will vary depending on the parents view of sport; and ultimately, their dispositional goal orientation. For instance, parents supporting a highly competitive goal orientation, identified winning and being better than other children as most important; whereas parents endorsing less competitive orientated goals placed greater emphasis on their child focusing on getting on with others and being accepted as part of the team (Lee, 1993). Resultantly, if emphasis is placed on effort, improvement, and self-referenced goals, then a mastery clima te develops. In contrast, if emphasis is placed on social comparison, winning competitions, and other-referenced goals, then a performance climate develops. As parents are the most critical social influence on childrens development, it is likely that goal orientations are made clear through parents encouraging and rewarding certain actions and involvement in certain activities (Weigand et al., 2001). Previous studies have examined perceptions of the motivational climate initiated by the coach (e.g. Newton Duda, 1997; Seifriz et al, 1992; Treasure Roberts, 1997). The results from these investigations have supported the categorisation of motivation into two distinct climates-being, a task-involving and an ego-involving climate. Include sentence here clarifying task-involving is mastery climate and ego-involving is performance climate and be consistent in your use of terms. Further work in this field has also demonstrated the link between such climates with an individuals adaptive or maladaptive motivational patterns. This is an interesting area of study as the adoption of an adaptive or maladaptive motivational attitude will influence the chosen goal orientation that the child will work under. Current research has reflected that perceptions of a mastery climate are linked with high task orientation, whereas perceptions of a performance climate are associated with high ego orienta tion. Socialisation an influential construct? Socialisation is a two way interactive social process whereby individuals are exposed to significant forms of information regarding expectations within a particular setting (Bandura, 1977; Greendorfer 1993; Weiss and Glenn, 1992). For instance, parents may encourage their children to partake in a wide variety of sporting activities; in order to emphasize their belief that making friends during childhood is important, and also to stay fit and healthy you must exercise often. In contrast, other parents who are more ego-orientated driven will expect their child to excel within the activity; sometimes adopting a win-at-all costs attitude. Parents are considered to be the most influential social agent in a young childs life as children spend most of their time within the family unit during early childhood; and parents are usually the ones who will introduce their children into sport and enrol them into sport programmes (Green and Chalip, 1998; Greendorfer, Lewko and Rosengreen, 1996). It is also predicted that during the early years, parents are likely to be present at their childrens games and sport fixtures; therefore giving them ample opportunity to express their values and beliefs of sport to their children (Scanlan, 1996). Horn (2004) also demonstrates that before 10 years of age, children regard the feedback and judgements regarding their abilities given from parents, as imperative to their development and progress. However, when they reach the teenage years, children rely more on the feedback given and believes demonstrated by their peers and coaches; now meaning that parents are more likely to support their chi ldren with regards to transport and the financial needs of participation (Cote, 1999). This shift in primary sporting influence from parents to coaches and peers, when a child enters their teenage years (Hellstedt, 1995) . This can sometimes increase the chances of a coach-parent conflict but can also confuse the child in who they are supposed to take primary notice of. Treasure and Roberts (1995) have shown that physical activity and a childs choices towards sports participation are not only influenced by their dispositional goal orientations (e.g. task and ego goals), but also by the actions, beliefs and attitudes from powerful social agents (e.g. coaches, parents and peers). The process of socialisation is powerful in demonstrating parents beliefs to their child; since, as individuals mature they come to define their own set of values, therefore making a greater number of independent decisions (Dixon, Warner and Bruening, 2008). With this knowledge, it is appropriate to assume that socialisation is most influential during the earlier stages of a childs lifetime (Dixon, Warner and Bruening, 2008). Laursen and Hartup (2002) supported this finding, commenting that, as children enter late childhood (10-12 years); they extend and mature their social relationships with friends, peers and non-family members. One particular study concept that has been of great use when explaining the process of socialisation is the expectancy-value model (Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles Harold, 1991; Fredricks Eccles, 2002, 2004). This model does not address the longevity of parental impact as the model has been solely developed and tested for the study of childrens (rather than adolescents or adults) lives. Therefore, this research project will provide a retrospective account of the impact of parental influence on a childs sport involvement. This reflective process will allow findings to be gathered from when the participant first started experiencing parental influence, up until the present day. Conducting a retrospective study may also provide the researcher with the opportunity to predict a time or age range where parental encouragement is no longer influential, as many scholars argue that the effects of parental socialisation are centred in early childhood (ages 5-12) (Warner and Bruening, 2008). Warner and Bruening (2008) concluded that further research should examine an adults perspective of their parents impact on their sport beliefs, values and participation. The authors maintained that such a study would add value to the literature on parent socialisation. This supports the proposals for the current study, whereby opinions and perceptions will be taken from an adult-childs perspective. Social Agents The Parents / Parent-child interactions Researchers have identified parents as the most critical sport socialization agent for children (Brustad and Partridge, 2002). The majority of research surrounding the parent-created motivational climate has been completed by White (1996, 1998). White Duda (1993) produced a modification of the Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire (PIMCQ; ) (White, Duda Hart, 1992), named the PIMCQ-2. This 36-item questionnaire records sport and exercise participants perceptions of the motivational climate created by first their mother, and secondly their father. Subscales question the learning and enjoyment climate, worry-conductive climate and a success-without-effort climate (Jowett Lavallee, 2007). Of the 36 total items, 18 refer to the mother-created motivational climate and 18 items target the father created motivational climate (Lavoi and Stellino, 2008). MORE ABOUT THE QUESTIONNAIRE AND STRENGTHS / WEAKNESSES HERE.? yes Researchers (Horn and Weiss, 1991; Brustad, 1996) have suggested that, as a function of cognitive development, youngsters rely most heavily on parental and significant adult feedback to judge personal competency. A large proportion of time in childhood is also spent in the familial context, and children normally have not yet developed firm social contacts outside the family unit (Brustad, 1996). However, with expanding social experiences, cognitive maturation, and improved social skills, children and adolescents spend an increasing amount of time in peer group company, resulting in an increasing reliance on peers to evaluate competence (Horn and Weiss, 1991). Parents possess a great deal of power when expressing their beliefs, enabling them to sway and alter a youngsters choices by either providing encouragement by a means of transportation to and from sporting venues or by educating the child of the values associated with sport and physical activity. It is these powerful social processes whereby values and norms are transmitted and taught, with the hope that they will then be adopted by the child, which highlights the importance of the process of socialisation (Bandura, 1977; Greendorfer, 1993; Weiss Glenn, 1992). Dixon, Warner and Bruening (2008) suggested that in order to determine what attracts children into sport and influences their choices within this domain, the socialisation experiences that youngsters have need to be studied. Thus, an investigation was undertaken to examine the effect of parental influence on womens sport involvement. This study focused primarily on the process of socialisation, using the expectancy-value model to demonstrate their findings (Fredricks Eccles, 2002, 2004). Results revealed that parents have the most direct impact upon socialisation when a child is young, however this influential power is then passed onto teachers and coaches during the adolescent stage of a childs development (Anderssen, Wold, Torsheim, 2006). Few studies have examined the childs perception of parental beliefs (White, 1996), therefore the current study will focus on the perception of the motivational attitudes and climates that parents create. White (1998) supported this, identifying that it is the perception of a situation or set of behaviours that is more important than the actual situation or behaviour itself. For example, Duda and Hom (1993) examined the perceived and self-reported goal orientations of young athletes and their parents. Results revealed that children who were higher in task orientation, as opposed to ego orientation, perceived their significant parent to be higher in task orientation. In contrast, those children higher in ego orientation, as opposed to task orientation, perceived their significant parent to also be higher in ego orientation. Weigand (1994) found similar results, in a study of children and adolescents in a variety of youth sports. Results revealed that males, more than females, were sign ificantly more ego than task oriented, perceived both parents to endorse more ego than task involvement, and perceived fathers affective pressure in sport and importance of sport (e.g. pressure to win), to be higher. Parental influence can have a dramatic effect on ones choices towards sports participation (Fredricks and Eccles, 2002). Past investigations have examined the influence significant others have on children involved in sport and have identified parents as being the most influential (Kelly, 1974; Snyder, 1978). Recent research has also concluded that parental beliefs are consistently related to young adults goal orientations (White, Kavussanu, Tank Wingate, 2004). Dixon et al (2008) examined parental influence on womens lifetime sport involvement. Semi structured interviews were used to study socialisation and participation over time. Findings revealed that parents are more influential during a childs early youth; nevertheless they maintained that this influence lasts well beyond childhood. The authors also recognised that narrative accounts can often be overly positive or negative as subjects may demonstrate a degree of bias towards their parents. Nonetheless, Dixon et al (2008) believed that parents are one of the most powerful social agents for children. With this in mind a child will act in accordance with their parents beliefs about their potential successes, as they do not want to become a disappointment to them; thus they will place a similar, if not identical level of importance, upon success within that activity (Bois, Sarrazin, Brustad, Trouilloud, Cury, 2002). This study will seek to identify the links between the parent initiated motivational climate and the childs dispositional goal orientation. Waldron and Krane (2005) studied the motivational climate and goal orientation in adolescent female softball players, with particular reference to the development and maintenance of such goal orientations. Participants with an average age of 15 years completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ; Duda and Nicholls, 1992) and The Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire (PIMCQ (; White, Duda and Hart, 1992). Findings showed that children high in task orientation perceived their parents to be high in task orientation and children high in ego-orientation perceived their parents to be highly ego orientated. This is consistent with other studies results (White and Duda, 1996; Duda and Homs, 1993), after examining the relationship between goal orientation and the perceived parent-initiated motivational climate. Results reflected that children who were high in task orientation perceived their parents to prefer a climate where learning and enjoyment were mos t important. However, children high in ego orientation perceived their parents to favour a climate where success was associated with low levels of effort in the learning of physical skills. Importantly, it has been suggested that; the perception of a situation or motivational climate, rather than the actuality of the situation itself, should receive more attention in future research (Waldron Krane, 2005; White, 1998). Therefore the current study will aim to examine the perceptions of the motivational climate created by parents, as the influence of parents on athletes achievement behaviours has not been as widely studied as that of coaches (Waldron Krane, 2005). Stressors In addition to the obvious competition and sport specific stressors affecting athletes, another stressor that can affect youngsters is that of parental pressure (Maffulli, 2001). Hellstedt, (1990, 1995) and Scanlan, (1995); identified both positive and negative aspects of parental involvement. With regards to the positive aspects, parents were referred to as being the main source of encouragement, positive role models and providers of support (e.g. emotional, financial). However, parental support was also viewed at times to be negative, as, parents presented a source of stress through criticism of performance and financial blackmailing based on the financial investment made by them. Research has supported that unrealistically high parental expectations (such as pressure, criticism and those mentioned above); have been linked to lower enjoyment, less intrinsic motivation and more stress among young athletes (Lavoi and Stellino, 2008). Social Cognitive Perspective The predominant theory used to examine interpersonal influences on behaviour has been social cognitive theory (SCT). Banduras (1991) social coginitve theory contended that personal factors (e.g. moral reasoning), environmental factors (parental socialisation) and moral behaviours operate interactively in a recipricol way (Horn, 2008). According to SCT, there exists, three primary mechanisms of influence on childrens physical activity choices; these are, role modelling, social influence and social support processes (Welk, Wood and Morss, 2003). Role modelling has emerged from the research as the most commonly used source of parental influences on physical activity (Anderssen and Wold, 1992; Moore, Lombardi, White, Campbell, Olivera and Ellison, 1991), however the results are mixed, with some studies finding little or no link between parent and child activity habits (Biddle and Goudas, 1996; Garcia, Broda, Frenn, Coviak, Pender and Ronis, 1995). Despite the fact that it is reasonable to expect that parents who are active may be more likely to encourage their children to participate in physical activity than parents who are inactive (Sage, 1980; Seppanen, 1982); this topic has received little attention in recent times. Therefore, the current study will seek to establish the strength of the relationship between parent activity levels and sports participation, in correspondence to that of their children. Previous Research Measures Much of the previous research has used quantitative measures of study to collect results, therefore the current study will focus on qualitative measures (i.e., interviews) as they offer a more in-depth perspective (Gratton and Jones, 2004) and allow participants to expand and explain their answers to given questions. Through this data collection method it is hoped that the quality of data will be greater as the interviewer can use probes to guide the interviewee to specific answers, allowing for increased precision of responses (REF). From the literature reviewed, it is clear that the motivational climates created by significant others play a vital role in influencing youngsters attitudes and choices towards physical activity and sport (White, 1998). Therefore, predictions can be drawn that parental task orientated climates will predict athletes task orientation whereas parental ego orientated climates will predict athletes ego orientation. Need concluding para with summary of aims and hypothesise (if appropriate)

The Economic Impact of Tourism

Social and cultural impact of tourism As an industry, tourism is a dynamic, evolving, consumer-driven force. It is the world’s largest industry. It is the employer of 183 million people. This represents 10,2% of the global workforce. By employing one out of every the workers, travel and tourism is the world’s largest employer. As an industry, tourism is expected to grow much faster than other sectors. Growing so rapidly, tourism presents tremendous opportunities and challenges.Although a mature industry, tourism is a young profession. The good news is the variety of career prospects for today’s hospitality and tourism graduates. Tourism is a leading producer of tax revenues. When a tourist spends money to travel, to stay in a hotel, or to eat in a restaurant, that money is recycled by these businesses to purchase more goods, thereby generating further use of the money. In addition, employees of businesses who serve tourists spend a high proportion of their money locally on various goods and services.This chain reaction continues until there’s a leakage, meaning that money is used to purchase something from outside their area. This phenomenon is usually called the multiplier effect. Social and cultural impact of tourism From a social and cultural perspective, tourism can have both positive and negative impacts on communities. Even a visit to another part of your own country can both socially and culturally stimulating. Undoubtedly, tourism has made significant contributions to international understanding, peace and prosperity.However, tourism results not only in sociocultural benefits but also in sociocultural problems. Imagine the feelings of an employee in a developing country who earns perhaps $5 per day when he sees wealthy tourists flaunting money. Another example is nude female tourists sunbathing in a Moslem country. On the other hand, tourism is a clean and green industry, that most of the hotels are built with concern for the environment and use local crafts people, designers, and materials.Tourism brings new revenue to the area, it also creates and maintains higher rate of employment than if there were no tourism. During the past few years, the so-called â€Å"ecotourism† has developed in the countries which try to minimize visitor impact on their natural and cultural environment. In practical terms, ecotourism tour operators prepare participants by educating them about local culture, animals, plants.

What You Need to Know About Social Classes Pesuasive Essay Topics

What You Need to Know About Social Classes Pesuasive Essay Topics Social Classes Pesuasive Essay Topics and Social Classes Pesuasive Essay Topics - The Perfect Combination Famous people set a terrible example for kids. Some feel parents ought to be allowed to provide permission for their minor children to have tattoos, since they are making the decision for their own children. In order to get children, both parents ought to be certified. Prospective parents ought to be asked to take parenting classes. Key Pieces of Social Classes Pesuasive Essay Topics Even a student can begin a business online. The internet should be censored. School and household internet ought to be filtered. Folks shouldn't post private information on social networking sites. Internet access needs to be free. Students need to be careful about posting on social networking. They should be encouraged to include both textual information and their own connections and implications. New Questions About Social Classes Pesuasive Essay Topics Similar interests assume the reason different classes have a tendency to be around each other more. Every student ought to be made to learn to code. The teacher might need to provide models or instruction on developing a bibliography or works cited. A minumum of one parent should work at home. The Appeal of Social Classes Pesuasive Essay Topics Why you shouldn't select your youngster's genetics. Problems related to drugs are quite contradictive. The voting age has to be lowered. It should be reduced to 16 years. Even if you think in a specific argument very strongly, if you lack the evidence to demonstrate your point, then your argument might just be as great as lost. Now you have a great beginning to your essay, you will need to compose a few paragraphs to back up your stance. The structure ought to be deliberately chosen to ensure it suits the subject, audience and aim of the speech. Persuasive speech refers to a certain sort of speech where the speaker has the objective of persuading the audience to accept their perspective. Persuasive essays are a fantastic method to encourage the reader to check at a particular topic in a different light. Good persuasive essay topics need to be persuasive. A student ought to keep in contact with the hottest trends and know which persuasive essay topics are related to sound convincing in regards to defending personal opinions. Needless to say, giving an excellent persuasive speech requires more than simply selecting an excellent topic. The reader ought to take the author's side by the close of the reading. Selecting the proper topic for a persuasive speech may be not such an easy matter to do as it might appear. In any case, the dearth of suitable grammar makes the listeners drop respect to the speaker. Normally, having three significant arguments to demonstrate your point is sufficient for a convincing paper. The third step is to be certain that the speech is localized. All charge card debt ought to be written off. Whatever the case, it's always a better idea to work with a topic that is especially close to you and that you get a genuine interest in, rather than just picking a random topic. Being on social media doesn't indicate that you're being social in the proper way. Our life is about words. Communicating with virtual friends can result in people not having the opportunity to socialize with real folks. Key Pieces of Social Classes Pesuasive Essay Topics Educated people ought to be asked to volunteer as literacy tutors. Topics that you're familiarized with will make it simpler to get ready for the speech. Students accountable for bullying ought to be expelled from school. The teachers don't always assign the specific topic. Language ought never to be permitted to change. Students may offer feedback to one another on their opening paragraphs. They should be allowed to listen to music during prep time. All students need to have a year studying abroad.

Horror Movie Essay - 1439 Words

3/22/2012 English 100 The Best of Horror movies Many people would say that their favorite way to have fun is to go to a beautiful beach and build sand castles or hang out with their friends at the mall. But for me, put me in a dark theater with a murderous psychopath on the loose threatening teenagers and I am happy. I am a lover of horror movies. This is something that I don’t always tell people, because it seems kind of weird to enjoy being scared and grossed out by lots of blood and gore. But in fact, I love horror movies, and I am not alone. And I am not crazy. Horror movies can be not only fun, but some experts have even argued that they are harmless or even good for us. There are many people who say that horror†¦show more content†¦Out of all of them I was the only one who was not afraid. I did not scream, nor did I ever cover my eyes like they did. At one point Barbara tried to leave in the middle of the movie because it was too â€Å"scary† I quickly put my leg up in front of her and told her â€Å"relax its not even that scary we didn’t pay ten dollars just to see half of the movie and leave†. She stayed but it would have been a good idea if I had let her go. Why? Because she constantly kept screaming every 10 seconds a â€Å"scary† part came up in the movie. Farah on the other hand was trying to keep it â€Å"cool and tough† just like I was, she didn’t scream much but the expression on her face was priceless, you can tell she was scared. But I kept laughing at them and saying â€Å"it’s not even that serious† so they probably thought I was really â€Å"tough†. So this is wha t Stephen King means when he says we try to prove how strong we are or how cool we can play it knowing that the movie is really scary. Most interestingly, he says â€Å"By the time one turns 40 or 50, one’s appetite for double twists or 360 degree loops may be considerably depleted† (King) Once we start to get older our love for horror movies start to disappear and we become little kids again that are afraid to watch scary movies. So King is also basically saying that mostly the younger generation prefers to watch horror movies. â€Å"That may explain why horror movies are most popular with younger audiences. Teens and twenty-somethings â€Å"are more likely toShow MoreRelated Is Jaws a Horror Movie? Essay1524 Words   |  7 PagesJaws a Horror Movie? First, I will intend to take you on a brief journey through the horror genre and the conventions that have been associated. Second I will show you how these conventions are used in the film Jaws. Let’s take a closer look at the history of the horror genre. To get started we are going to start with the first era or as it’s called the silent era. 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In King’s Playboy-published essay, â€Å"Why We Crave Horror Movies,† he examines the popular trend of attending horror films, and he provides several explanations for this craving behavior. King claims that attending these gory films is not just a trend; he believes that it is a necessity. In the essay, King claims that we need/crave horror movies for two